Restoration
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Chapter III Disease — An Ancient Curse DISEASE is a universal phenomenon as old as man
himself. It is a MONUMENTAL FACT of ALL history! Hardly any other facet of human experience
has so affected the daily lives of men, past and present! Yet, until the Twentieth
Century, scientific data on the incidence of disease in history was
sketchy. In fact, “we [had] . . . no
knowledge whatever of the early
incidence of illness in large sections of the globe. [However], the MAIN CONCLUSION drawn from
[recent] paleopathological studies, [is] . . . that
the phenomenon of disease is very old and
that disease has always occurred in the
same basic forms . . .” (Sigerist, A History
of Medicine, p. 67). Discoveries have now provided us
with significant information as to the ancient incidence of disease in the major, heavily populated, areas of the
world. When analyzed, the conclusion of the above quotation is a
startling statement! History bears out the fact that
the disease “which hath been, it is that which shall be.” There is a reason for this, which will be
explained later. Herodotus stated, Modern Disease in Ancient The work of Sir Marc Armand Ruffer, the man who
founded paleopathology,
now becomes important — and fascinating!
Additional work in this revolutionary field of the study of disease
has helped piece together the amazing
picture of ancient diseases. As previously mentioned, Ruffer’s interests lay in the identification of disease
through the record contained in ancient mummies. This proved to be a rich source of
information. Initially, it was found
that Egyptian skeletons, dating back to the Congenital deformities of the skeletal structure were rarely found, though examples of club foot and similar defects have
been discovered — at least to the extent that it is known they suffered
somewhat from such a “modern” malady.
There may indeed have been certain deformities of the fleshy part of
the body, which, of course, would have disappeared with its deterioration. However, severe cases of diseases of the teeth, jaw, and gums were
prevalent! Again, this is a
pathological disturbance, which would be readily recorded in the skeletal
structure. These ancient peoples
apparently suffered ALL THE MODERN DENTAL PROBLEMS! For example, paradentosis, dental caries, and erosion of dental enamel exposing the
nerves, which lead to inflammation and
abscesses were definitely
identified (see Byran, The Papyrus Ebers, p. xxviii). Though dental problems were
tragically common in the later ages of Another of Ruffer’s
significant contributions to paleopathology was a
technique for analyzing the dehydrated and centuries-old body tissue of the
mummies. His technique involved
soaking the hardened tissues in a solution of three parts alcohol, five parts
water, and two parts of a soda solution.
He succeeded in restoring the tissue to a degree sufficient for
laboratory analysis. Experimenting
with his development, he was able to describe smallpox lesions on the parched skin of an ancient mummy! And from Ruffer’s
day to the present, techniques have continued to improve. In fact, in 1939 scientists were able to
begin determining the blood groups
of Egyptians who had died several thousand years ago! Using this method of restoration
to advantage, a vast new area of paleopathology had
opened wide to the Egyptologists. A
well-known religious tradition was to provide the inspiration for further
study. Egyptians practiced the rite of
committing their internal organs to the care of patron deities. These were preserved along with a small representation of the idol in canopic jars. Once
carefully sealed these jars effectively preserved their contents for Ruffer and others to examine centuries later! Ruffer announced the results of microscopic analysis of the
restored kidneys of two mummies, dating back at least 1000 years B.C. The scientist had found conclusive evidence
of the dreaded parasitical disease of the Such discoveries fired their
interest! Once verified, the pursuit
for evidence of other bacterial diseases was relentless. Their efforts were not to be denied for ancient It was not long until Ruffer was able to demonstrate the presence of
staphylococci bacteria in his restored tissues. This was a significant breakthrough in the
study of disease! Indeed, these ages apparently suffered the same ravages of more
recent eras! It was not surprising,
then, though no less remarkable a discovery, when he located the red-shaped
form of the plague bacilli. As we shall later see, EPIDEMICS posed a
frightful problem at the earliest Initially, the search for a
similar historical record of tuberculosis
proved fruitless. Extraordinary
obstacles opposed this investigation.
Extremely fragile, this bacilli disappears soon after death. In addition, the specimens of mummified
lungs were too few to allow the formation of a stable conclusion to the
presence or absence of tuberculosis. However, astounding pulmonary
discoveries were destined to appear! Ruffer located a case of anthracosis in a human
being. Continuing in their examination
of the preserved lungs pneumonia and
pleurisy were detected. Eventually positive evidence of
tuberculosis might appear. Yet in 1910, a particularly
productive year, Ruffer examined the mummy of a
priest who apparently lived about 1000 B.C.
This individual evidenced the typical curvature of the spine
associated with Pott’s disease.
Continuing his examination through the means of restored tissue, Ruffer found the remains of an extensive abscess in the
lumbar muscle. A typical symptom of
this disease is the accumulation of tubercular pus in this area. The abcess, no
doubt, contained tubercular pus! A
conclusive inference could now be drawn: where Pott’s
disease was so common, tuberculosis of the lungs must have existed! Henceforth, there could be
little doubt that tuberculosis had
registered its effect in Pressing the investigation, Ruffer later found gallstones
in the liver of a mummy dating to the 21st Dynasty. He also proved a singer of the 12th
Dynasty showed signs of chronic gallbladder
inflammation. Certain typical
adhesions of that area of the intestines indicated that appendicitis was a Two years earlier, in 1909,
Elliot Smith and his colleague, The Ebers Papyrus makes ample reference to the various forms of diarrhea, including such serious cases as amoebic dysentery, gastro enteritis, and cholera! Sufficient evidence was also
found to indicate the occasional presence of typhoid fever and malaria. No doubt these highly serious ailments
resulted from indiscriminate use and care of the Further investigation of the preserved
mummies was to show that tonsillitis was known among the Egyptians. Careful examination of the intestines brought to light
another “modern” ailment. Egyptians,
too, suffered from a form of constipation
called “sheep feces” — a pellet-like form of bowel movement produced by
intestinal cramps. Such an affliction
indicates a type of life parallel to what we experience today. This type of constipation is regarded as
being due to disturbances of the central nervous system, and commonly arises
from the rush and agitation of a nerve-racking life. In this respect the two societies certainly
parallel one another! As a result of their highly
original, persistent, and extensive investigations, the conclusion rightly reached by Ruffer and his associates, was
that ALL INTESTINAL DISEASES OF MODERN TIMES OCCURRED IN ANCIENT EGYPT! The mummies had revealed an understanding
of the history of disease that had never been remotely imagined in recent Major Modern Diseases At this point most will admit
that there was disease in As astounding as it may be to
us, there were just such cases! Our age has taken the view that arterial
diseases are products only of our
present civilization. However, similar
intemperance, tensions, and hectic pressures of everyday life will produce
the same results in any age. Extensive
diagnosis of the bodies of dead Egyptians has uncovered a major, modern ailment
common to both ages: arteriosclerosis. Egyptians from all eras endured arterial
diseases in no way different from today’s examples (see Castiglioni,
A History of Medicine, p. 47)! Even great kings and queens of
bygone eras suffered abnormalities of the blood vessels. Prominence of the temple vessels is
particularly striking in many mummies — indicating, even to the unpracticed
eye of the layman, a serious
degenerative condition! Ruffer was anxious to determine the cause for the general
occurrence of arteriosclerosis in This knowledge of their
excessive dietary habits gave Ruffer and his
colleagues a clue, which could be followed up in the laboratory. They pursued their investigations. Examination of the skin, especially the
ample folds of the skin, of royalty, revealed these people had been extremely fat. The idealized portraits of a
lean people which the Egyptian artists created have given posterity a
completely false picture of the Egyptians, just as the idealized statues of Here was a decadent physical
weakness, which linked the arterial diseases of Their arterial and
cardio-vascular diseases were no doubt partially brought on by continual
excesses of food and drink with its resultant obesity. There is also reason to believe
the incidence of angina pectoris
and the present-day female ailment, varicose
veins were also common. Infantile Paralysis:
A stele depicting a crippled
servant of the 18th Dynasty (circa 1000 B.C.) shows serious
malformation of the man’s right leg — evidently a result of some type of
paralysis. This record of such a
condition is not an isolated case. At the
turn of the century, J.K. Mitchell discovered a mummy who had suffered from a
similar paralysis during its lifetime.
Even the dead man’s walking stick had been buried with him. After a detailed study, Mitchell made the
startling suggestion the man’s lameness had been the result of infantile paralysis! Such evidence is, of itself, not
conclusive proof. However, some ten
years after this assertion, W.R. Dawson and a team of other specialists
investigated the afore-mentioned stele of Ruma the
servant and the theory of Mr. Mitchell.
These men, too, concluded that the two cases probably did indicate the
incidence of poliomyelitis in
ancient Egypt (see Smith, Elliot & Dawson, Egyptian Mummies). Cancer: In 1825 A.B. Granville, a predecessor of Ruffer, had discovered an isolated case of a malignant
tumor in an ancient mummy. Knowing of
this earlier find, Ruffer was determined to prove
cancer indigenous to Egypt.
Comparatively little evidence was ever found. However, that which was discovered was
enlightening. The mummies at least
revealed the incidence of osteosarcoma — a highly malignant cancer of the bone! Several such tumors were found in the
skeletons of mummies from the 5th Dynasty at the Giza Pyramids (circa 1600 B.C.). Evidence of only two other types of this
malignant disease was found — cancer of the pharynx and of the rectum
(see Bryan, The Papyrus Ebers, p. xxvi). It logically follows,
as in the instance of tuberculosis, that if
the skeletal structure was subject to cancer, there is good reason to assume
that other organs were afflicted with similar malignancies! So Ruffer’s
work in ancient pathology changed the experts’ opinion about the health of
ancient Egypt overnight. This
anciently inhabited land along the Nile had been seriously afflicted with the most modern diseases as early as the
1st Dynasty — the Old Kingdom. Such a display of disease and
death — not to mention the additional requirements of war — demanded an adequate medical practice to
attempt its control. As Herodotus stated, the Egyptian doctors were specialists. It is
obvious they had to be, to attempt
to handle such a ravage of the human body! Inscriptions on tombs indicate
the highly specialized nature of early medicine. There was a “Guardian of the Royal Bowel
Movement,” a “Guardian of the Royal Nose,” an “Eye Doctor of the Palace,” a
“Doctor of the Abdomen,” and etc. Such
diversity of practice indicates these
ancient peoples had staged a monumental effort to control disease through
a COMPETENT medical faculty. This is the fascinating story of
the following chapter! |
