Restoration
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Chapter IV A Competent Medical Faculty — Before Hippocrates! Antiquity refers to
what is ancient or obsolete. When
applied to physicians, it traditionally refers to those who practiced in a
bygone, distant, ignorant age. However, the mere passage of time IS NOT
sufficient reason to defame an age and its people as obsolete! It is a wrong
assumption to dismiss the physicians of those ancient The testimony of [some]
contemporary writers about medicine in Babylon,
Assyria and Persia [and Egypt, China, India, and Latin America] indicates
that what we term the physician of antiquity was an active, capable, professional man, able to meet all the
contingencies of his practice at least as competently as the ordinary country
doctor today (Selwyn-Brown, The
Physician Throughout The Ages, p. 197). This may seem a shocking
statement in the light of recent advances in medicine. But ancient medicine was advanced too! Recent discoveries prove that the ancient
practice matched many facets of its modern counterpart, technique for
technique! It is an unforgettable
experience to plunge into the mists of antiquity to study a civilization
whose peoples lived fully 2000 years before Jesus Christ only to find today’s
diseases and today’s cures! Their age
seems somehow not so distant or remote, when one Astounding evidence of the
genius of the first two Egyptian dynasties has been preserved for us in the
form of intellectual and technological discoveries of those early
centuries. The artifacts of Medicine is not to
be excluded from these historical developments! “Hence the probability is strong that the
medical traditions of the Greeks were wholly
derived from the schools of the Egyptians” (Hamilton, The History of Medicine, Surgery and Anatomy, p. 35). Yes, the origin of medicine in the post-Flood era belongs to Since the days of the Medicine is practiced among the
Egyptians on a plan of separation. Each
physician treats a single disorder, and no more. Thus the country swarms with medical
practitioners, some undertaking to cure diseases of the eye,
others of the head, others again of the teeth, others of the intestines,
and some those which are not local (Herodotus, The Persian Wars, p. 155). This on-the-spot observation has
long been discounted as whimsical speculation. Herodotus must have imagined it all! However, in spite of such skepticism, archaeological discoveries have
corroborated these reports! The
only question which remained was, did Herodotus’ or
Homer’s accounts of Egyptian medical excellence apply to the 1500 years of
medical history preceding their age.
The answer is YES! Their
observations were correct! Medicine
was a highly specialized, advanced practice 4000 years ago. Ancient Physicians Confident! The study of ancient literature
reveals a high degree of confidence,
both on the part of the physician to treat the disease, and on the part of
the patient to receive satisfactory treatment. Notice the confidence toward physicians
expressed in a letter to Ashurbanipal, a king of Notice now the letter from a
physician to the father of a young patient: Hearty greetings to the King, my
Lord, from Arad-Nana, physician. Hearty
greetings also to the little lad whose eyes are sore. I placed a bandage on his face. Yesterday evening, I took the bandage off and
removed the dressing, and there was blood on the dressing, as much as would
cover the point of the little finger.
To which ever of the gods this benign action is due,
his command surely has been heeded. Hearty greetings! Let the King, my Lord, rest assured: in a week or
so, the boy will be well again (ibid., p. 198). This Assyrian doctor seems to
write with absolute assurance in
his skill! And these examples of
doctor-patient confidence in the medical practice of their age do not stand
alone! Many similar letters have been
translated revealing that the writers knew their work so well, as to be able
to write about their patient’s ill health authoritatively and assuredly. Few iatrogenic fatalities are recorded! “None
of the eight hundred remedies found in the Ebers Papyrus appear to have actually killed anyone of those whom they
were intended to benefit. THIS IS
STRANGE” (Bryan,
The Papyrus Ebers,
p. 55). This is indeed strange in
modern Astoundingly enough, sufficient
material has been uncovered to state that the professional skill and ability of the doctors was such that “THE
PROPORTION OF CURES TO DEATHS OF PATIENTS APPEARS HIGHER THAN IT IS
TODAY”! (Selwyn-Brown, The Physician Throughout The Ages, p.
197). Even in light of the facts, this
assertion will seem impossible to some.
However, its accuracy may even be demonstrated from the law of the
day: the Code of Hammurabi! In ancient Notice these few excerpts from
the Code of Hammurabi: Article 196: “IF a man has destroyed the eye of a
patrician, his own eye shall be
destroyed. Article 197: “IF he has broken the bone of a patrician, his bone shall be broken. Article 198: “IF he has destroyed the eye of a plebeian,
or broken a bone of a plebeian, he
shall pay one mina of silver. Article 218: “IF the doctor
has treated a gentleman for a severe wound . . . and has caused the gentleman
to die . . . one shall cut off his
hands” (Johns, The Oldest Code of Laws, pp. 43-47). Though these laws appear overly
strict and harsh today, they would effectively
guarantee no lack of skill among physicians. And such codes strictly regulating medical
practice were common throughout all the Even operating under the threat
of such harsh consequences, medicine flourished! And with
good reason! When the records are
properly understood, it becomes plain these physicians depended on a medical
practice, which would be considered competent by today’s standards! Pharmacology of “It is clear from the study of
the medical papyri that medicine
advanced considerably amongst the Egyptians and from them [some of their]
medical . . . knowledge has descended to us . . . while probably MUCH OF IT
WAS LOST IRRECOVERABLY”
(Selwyn-Brown, The
Physicians Throughout The Ages, p. 205).
In spite of certain losses, Egyptologists recognize the ability,
learning, and remarkable interest then manifested in the development of
medicine. Enough of a record does remain
to allow a responsible comparison
between ancient and modern medicine.
The full complement of medical practice possessed by these people is astounding
— especially in the light of knowledgeable comparison. Surely “the past is worth our study and ever more so the further we advance” (ibid., p. 203). As we advance in our understanding of
medical history, further skepticism becomes ridiculous — the evidence of a
highly developed practice is here for all to see! The MEDICAL PAPYRI previously
mentioned — principally the Ebers Papyrus, the
Smith Papyrus, the Kahun Papyrus, and the Berlin Papyrus — provide an
insight into the pharmacopoeia available to the physician. From these works it is apparent he had at
his disposal an immense variety of drugs, minerals, and other substances with
which to fight disease. These textbooks
(the papyri) instructed him in how to mix his raw materials into effective medicines. In addition, they told him what remedies to
use for what symptoms. In modern
terminology, the art of diagnosis
was being practiced. Anatomy Once translated, the Smith Papyrus revealed a startling
fact currently essential to accurate diagnosis: the ancient physician
understood the importance of the human heart
and of counting the pulse! They A symbol for the heart was
included in the Egyptian hieroglyphs.
Noting this, a number of scholars postulated that the Egyptians must have been among the first ANATOMISTS in
history — some 3500 years before its official recognition as a science in
1300 A.D. Many other hieroglyphs
supported this postulation as special
symbols were found for other organs of the body: stomach, liver,
windpipe, spleen, bladder, and the womb.
Early physicians definitely were not as ignorant of anatomy as they
were once assumed to be. It became apparent the Egyptians
recognized at least two basic facts
from their study of anatomy: 1) that the heart’s
pumping action affected all parts of the body, and 2) that blood vessels or “channels” led from
the heart to all other parts of the body.
Though research sources are limited, it is now evident much basic anatomical knowledge was then
extant! Science of Accurate Prescription One of the most fascinating
aspects of ancient medicine, which developed from the translation of the Ebers Papyrus, was the information it gave
on the variety of medicines and drugs.
“Medicines were prescribed in
all the forms still in use today” (Castiglioni,
A History of Medicine, p. 52). Inoculations, pills, suppositories,
liquids, inhalations, poultices, gargles, fumigations, enemata, and balms
were popularly administered externally and internally. The farther specialists looked
into the matter, the more amazed they became!
Over eight hundred prescriptions were carefully set forth in the Ebers Papyrus alone (see Bryan, The Papyrus Ebers, p. 15). A few of the prescriptions are
extremely simple with one substance directed to be taken. The majority, however, are
more complex including a dozen or more drugs.
The longest of them in this particular papyrus consists of
thirty-seven ingredients! These were
not just silly magical recipes as had at first been thought, but legitimate prescriptions. “Ebbell
and his It is necessary to list only a
few: poppy, henbane, mandrake,
jimson-weed, celery, turpentine, pomegranate, linseed, sycamore, castor-oil,
thyme, cardoamom, caraway, and garlic. So from limited
sources, a wealth of medicaments was found which figure prominently in
our pharmacopoeia today! To attempt to compile a complete list from just this
one papyrus would be impossible as the
identity of a considerable number of substances is not known. According to Reginald Thompson, 180 drugs
listed in Babylonian medical tablets are yet unidentified. Our knowledge of these ancient medicines is
limited. However, there is no doubt that
their physicians knew the effective properties of those substances as they
carefully measured the components of all their medicines. Prescriptions were written out in due form and some Thus, the Egyptians were the
ORIGINATORS OF EXACT PRESCRIPTION! Chemically-Induced Anesthesia The pharmacopoeia of So Chemists have now correctly
analyzed the plant and mineral substances to determine their effectiveness
according to the manner in which they were anciently used. Again the results of research proved
amazing! Numerous prescriptions
included modern ANESTHETICS and
SEDATIVES! The name mandragora or mandrake is
commonly found in the drug lists. Even
as late as the Middle Ages it was used as a sedative for operations.
Only recently, however, have the two active agents in the plant, which
induce the sought for unconsciousness in a surgical patient been identified. These agents are atropine, and scopolamine,
which have a numbing effect on the central nervous system. The poppy is also mentioned as a painkiller. Even the history of modern medicine
includes dependence on opium, morphine,
codeine, narcotine and papaverine. Another significant item on the
prescription lists was a plant closely related to mandragora-henbane. This plant, too, was used around the world
as a sleep-inducing agent for thousands of years. It was used by surgeons to deaden the pain
of operations. Analyzation
of henbane found it to contain scopolamine. In addition to mandragora, poppy, and henbane, other plants yielded the
precious pain-relieving sedatives.
Common among these was stramonium or jimson weed.
Used by the Egyptians, this plant also contains two effective
chemicals: hyoscyamine and atropine. “But the more this subject
[analysis of ancient drugs] is studied, the more obvious appears to have been
the great knowledge possessed by the
doctors and chemists of . . . these ancient Bacteriology It is often argued that the role
of germs in pathology could not have been grasped in ancient However, That syste Herodotus wrote, Each man possesses a net. By day it serves him to catch fish, while
at night he spreads it over the bed in which he is to rest . . . . The gnats [insects],
which if he rolls himself up in his dress or in a piece of muslin, are sure
to bite through the covering, do not so much as attempt to pass the net
(Herodotus, The Histories, p. 74). Ancient Egyptians possessed mosquito netting! Did they understand that disease
may be communicated by insects? Why
should we doubt it? The Roman author Varra wrote, “intermittent fever” was not due to climatic
conditions as commonly assumed, but that it was brought on by bestiolae,
(small animals) — in other words, insects! They carried the agents of the fever, as
they did for many other diseases. This
was millenia before Gorgas,
who, at the construction of the Bacteriology was an established
fact of ancient Surgery We are able to construct a
reasonably complete picture of ancient surgery from the medical papyri. From current records it appears the
development of surgery in the old world reached its apex in Old Indian surgery contained
practically all the operations known to the modern Western surgeon! Ancient Hindu surgeons performed such
difficult operations as rhinoplasty (a type of plastic surgery), lithotomy, abdominal surgery (without
infection), Caesarean section, cataract
removal, and even BRAIN SURGERY — which is reputed to be one of the
greatest achievements of Western medicine. That Western medicine owes its surgery to “In surgery, India seems to have
attained a special proficiency, and
in this department, European surgeons might perhaps even at the present day
still learn something from them, as
indeed they have already borrowed from them . . .” (Selwyn-Brown, The Physician Throughout The Ages, p. 275). Since the Edwin Smith Papyrus is the oldest and most complete single treatise on surgery in antiquity, its
reference to Egyptian surgery will
be the primary example. “Though the
papyrus contains no clue as to the author’s name, Breasted believes that
there is good internal evidence that this
surgical treatise was written in the This papyrus carries the account
of forty-five traumatic lesions and of some surgical diseases of the
thorax. Consequently, it constitutes a
most valuable book in the history of surgery!
This record is much older than any similar Indian account. No doubt surgical knowledge was originally gleaned from In the papyrus, all the cases are accurately described,
beginning with the objective examination,
the diagnosis, prognosis, and the
subsequent treatment. “The clinical observations are so accurate and clear that it does not
seem possible to the physician who reads these pages today that five thousand
years have passed from the time when an acute observer and expert operator
collected the results of his rich experience to serve him in teaching” (ibid.,
p. 56)! Circumcision was
also practiced by the Egyptians in ancient Even this brief account gives an
impressive affirmation of the state of surgery in ancient Miscellaneous Medical Developments Incense was as
popular in the Middle and Today incense is primarily
associated with religion. As a result,
its ancient import has gone
unnoticed. Anciently, incense was a tool of medicine! Chemists have discovered that the burning of incense produces phenol
— commonly called CARBOLIC ACID. When
introduced into the operating room in the nineteenth century, it was hailed
as the first antiseptic. When, in fact, ancient nations had sought
operative hygiene through similar antisepis millenia ago! In 1898 Sir Flinders Petrie
discovered another medical textbook — the Kahun Papyrus. Only three pages
long, it was obviously but a portion of a more extensive work. He took his new find to Specific references were
included which any modern gynecologist would recognize: typical bladder
disturbances which accompany pregnancy, phlebitis, abdominal cancer,
hemorrhages, menstrual irregularities, tumors and inflammations of various
female organs. One of the most amazing
discoveries in this field of medicine, was a prescription intended to prevent
pregnancy. Initially, at face
value, it received only skepticism and ridicule. The prescription read: “acacia spikes ground fine with dates and
honey, rubbed on a wad of fibres and inserted deep
into her vagina. . . .” Apparently no
one had considered analyzing this composition scientifically. Recently, laboratory analysis has proved,
much to the researcher’s astonishment, that acacia spikes contain a substance
which forms lactic acid when dissolved in a fluid. Many
present-day contraceptive preparations contain the same lactic acid! Even in this facet of feminine hygiene,
ancient women were surprisingly up-to-date! Antibiotics — 4000 Years Ago! In 1928 Alexander Flemming identified a new chemical substance — penicillin. The medical world hailed this discovery as
revolutionary! Here was a drug which possessed antibiotic
properties. Physicians and
chemists had been searching for years to isolate a drug, which could
effectively, safely combat the spread of harmful bacteria. Apparently penicillin was the answer. In 1900 among certain medical
men, chemotherapy was in disrepute.
Physicians in every country were speaking their minds on the subject;
powerful books were written against the use of drug therapy. Drugs were not considered safe or
effective. However, with the advent of
penicillin, a stampede ensued in laboratories worldwide to discover similar
new chemicals to fight disease. The discovery of the antibiotic
soon became known as the most important in the recent history of drug
therapy! The modern physician now possessed,
for the first time, a highly effective means to stop the spread of toxic
bacteria. The Age of Antibiotics was
born! Or, Was It Merely Rediscovered? As astounding as this discovery
seemed to the physician of 1928, the working principle of antibiotics was not new! The word antibiotic simply means “against
life” (Chambers,
Chambers Twentieth Century Dictionary,
p. 42). An antibiotic, then, is
inimical to life; it is a substance
which inhibits the growth of an organism. THIS PRINCIPLE WAS COMMON
KNOWLEDGE 4000 YEARS AGO! Ancient Antibiotics Herodotus, writing of the
building of the Pyramid of Cheops, noted: An inscription is cut upon it
[the pyramid] in Egyptian characters recording the amount spent on radishes, onions, and leeks for the laborers, and I remember
distinctly that the interpreter who read me the inscription said the sum was
1600 talents of silver [approximately $4,000,000] (Herodotus, The Histories, II, p. 125). Why should such an enormous
amount be spent on these particular vegetables? And possibly even more incongruous — why record such insignificant detail
on the pyramid? For a long time, no
one paid attention to this comment in The
Histories. Certainly no serious
historian ever gave it any medical
significance. In 1948, the Swiss scientists Karrer and Schmidt effected an
experiment which enabled them to grasp the astounding import of the
quotation. These men discovered that
radish seeds contained a chemical called raphanin — which definitely
possessed antibiotic properties! The radish contained a natural
antibiotic. Raphanin
proved to be an effective destroyer of bacteria — including the cocci and coli.
Radish juice produces the same effect on the bacteria. Furthermore, the chemicals allicin and allistatin were
located in leeks (garlic) and onions.
These, too, are antibiotic in nature and effective against dysentery, typhoid fever and cholera. The distribution of radishes,
garlic, and onions in such quantities now projected to the scientists a
definite medical purpose! Sad
experience had no doubt taught the Egyptians that serious epidemics of
dysentery, typhoid fever, and cholera could break out among the masses of
pyramid workers quartered so closely together. Strict measures of sanitation would have to
be observed to keep such infectious diseases from breaking out at the
building site and spreading throughout the population. In addition, these vegetables which
contained a natural antibiotic were used to prevent the potential epidemics. Obviously these ancient people
understood the potential dangers of intestinal bacteria and the efficacy of
certain substances in controlling the ever-present threat of epidemic. To cite three vegetables, which
have inherent antibiotic properties, admittedly, is not sufficient of itself
to prove ancient existence of modern chemotherapy. But
it is an interesting singular discovery — considering only scattered
fragments from the vast medical Investigation has discovered
more. Notice! Sewer Pharmacology? All ancient medicine was not
nearly so pleasant or simple! In fact,
medical historians have termed a sizeable, complex section of Egyptian
pharmacopoeia “sewer pharmacology.” Numerous prescriptions call for
fly and pelican droppings, human urine, lizard excrement, human fecal matter, gazelle’s dung — and most frequently of all, the excrement of the
crocodile. Through exhaustive clinical
analysis, modern medical historians admitted to finding a rational
explanation for much of ancient materia medica, but this
bizarre treatment was clearly
foolishness! There could be no
practical value in such medication (see Rawlinson, History of Ancient Egypt, p. 306). And there was no mistaking the intention of these
men. The repulsive preparations were
used as prescribed! The Ebers Papyrus, alone, contains over fifty
prescriptions in which fecal matter and urine are important components. These medicaments were to be used internally, as well as externally. Many of the prescriptions are astonishingly specific in expressly
recommending the excretions from particular animals to treat a singular
disease. For example: “To drive out the nesit disease — crush two
testicles of a black ass, rub in wine and let the patient drink” (Bryan, The
Papyrus Ebers, p. 32). Human excrement mixed with
yeast-of-sweet-beer and honey is recommended as a dressing for wounds! Another example called for male semen as a
flavoring agent in a mixture to relieve abdominal obstruction! Such putrid examples dominate
ancient prescriptions! Abominable, repulsive, confounding! The natural response of historians, into
the middle of the twentieth century, was to label such medicine sewer
pharmacology. Nevertheless, the
physicians in those early days were confident in these weird prescriptions; recoveries
are recorded, and even recalling the strict code of Hammurabbi,
it is obvious the filth had an effect! The ancient secrets remained a
mystery. No one knew how these drugs
could produce any practical effect. The mysterious ingredient of
the excremental drugs remained hidden until 1948. It was in this year that Dr. Benjamin M. Duggar, Professor of Plant Physiology at Overnight, aureomycin
became a wonder drug. It unleashed
swift, certain annihilation upon various types of bacteria. The interesting aspect to history was not
its discovery, but how and where it was discovered. Its composition was profoundly reminiscent
of ancient prescriptions. Dr. Duggar had extracted aureomycin
from a type of soil found particularly in the vicinity of cemeteries! This particular soil produced a special fungi which had the annihilating effect upon
disease bacteria as did the molds from which penicillin was derived. A fact of chemistry was now
clear to modern science, which had been employed anciently: certain waste products resulting from
the metabolism of molds have an annihilating effect on bacteria. Further investigation showed that bacteria
living in a human or animal body, release their excretory products into the
excrement of the animal. It is now
known that the excrement of every animal contains different antibiotic
substances! The same principle
holds true for mud and soils in which once living material is
in the process of decay. The question now argued by
medical historians is, did the Egyptians develop antibiotic drugs? The answer is, as SYNTHETIC laboratory
products, no. The point is, anciently,
physicians did know that certain metabolic waste products retarded the growth
of disease bacteria. This working
formula, the inherent nature of our antibiotics, also formed the backbone of
ancient medical practice! Further proof that they did
appreciate this principle is found in the fact that they had collected and
CODIFIED the effect on specific diseases of every living creature’s
excrement: fecal and urine, male
and female, human and animal. History
now shows that the Egyptians, though often in crude form, anciently used
substances, which the mid-twentieth century held to be the latest
achievements of science! Such discoveries are staggering
to say the least! The physicians of
antiquity were not ignorant or obsolete. Though living in a bygone age, the ancient
man of medicine possessed not only confidence in his practice, but
also the CAPABILITY to meet the needs of his patients as a most “modern”
physician! |
